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Locations of Homo Sapiens Sapiens -Originated in Africa -Within 20,000 years, they dominated almost every continent in the world. -The earliest in Europe are called the Cro-Magnons after the rock shelter in France where they were first discovered in the AD 1860’s. Carbon-14 Dating -A technique for determining the age of things that were once living or have materials in them that were once living. -Once living things contain set amounts of radioactive carbon. This carbon also decays at known and constant rates. -By seeing how much of the radiocarbon has decayed over time, scientists can figure out how old something is. -Recently, scientists have begun using other chemicals to determine something’s age. Paleolithic Age -The earliest of the Stone Ages, also known as the Old Stone Age. -Began about 2.5 million years ago and lasted until about 12,000 B.C. -Homo Habilis and Homo Erectus lived during this time. -Homo Habilis or “person with ability” lived from 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago. -Homo Erectus or “person who walks upright” lived from about 1.8 million to 30,000 years ago. -By about 500,000 years ago, Erectus has become hunters instead of gatherers. -Erectus were the first humans to learn how to make fire. -They also learned how to make the first real clothing. -Erectus was well established even in China by 460,000 years ago. -Erectus at first only communicated with grunts but by 50,000 B.C. had learned the first forms of speech. Neolithic Age -The New Stone Age. Lasted from about 8000 B.C. to 5000 B.C. -A period taking place after the Ice Ages when the people of the world shifted from hunting and gathering to agriculture called the Neolithic Revolution took place during this time. -Took place very slowly over a period of 5000 years. -Evidence of agriculture dates back to 8000 BC in the Middle East whereas people in China and the Americas did not develop agriculture until between 5000 and 4000 BC. -By 4000 BC the population of the world had risen to 90 million. -Soon, agricultural villages of about 200 or so began forming. -Some of the very first villages included Jericho and Çatal Hüyük. -Çatal Hüyük was one of the biggest villages. It’s people built flat, square houses, with no windows. They painted the inside walls as well. -The Neolithic age brought with it many technological advances. -The people of this age also believed in many deities. Written Records -The first evidence of writing appeared about 3000 BC when Sumerian priests used a form of writing to keep records of raw materials and resources and animals. -First they used simple marks and pictures called pictograms (not graphs), but soon developed more complex symbols to represent ideas and things in their lives. Technology Homo Habilis. 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago. -Crude Stone Tools Homo Erectus. 1.8 million to 30,000 years ago. -Hand axes and other flaked stone tools. -Caves used and pits dug. -Clothing of animal skins. -Fire controlled for warmth, protection, and cooking. Homo Sapiens Neanderthals. 200,000 to 35,000 years ago. -Spear points and hide scrapers. -Shelters built or caves improved. -Skins laced for clothing. Cro-Magnons. 40,000 to 8,000 years ago. -Knives, chisel, spear-thrower, bow and arrow. -Bone tools: needle, fish hook, harpoon. -Fish nets, canoes. -Sewed leather clothing. -Sun-hardened pottery. Bronze -The most important new alloy that was made was a reddish-brown metal called bronze. -Bronze was made by mixing melted copper and tin. -Bronze was harder than copper or tin alone and had a much sharper cutting edge. -Bronze was much easier to mold and shape into objects since it a lot easier to cast it. -The metals used to make Bronze however (copper and tin) were very expensive so only kings and priests and soldiers used bronze. Loom -The loom was used to weave textiles into materials using such things as linen and wool. Cultural Diffusion -As long distance trade of goods developed, ideas, not only goods, began to be exchanged between different cultures. -This exchange of goods and ideas when different cultures came into contact with one another was called cultural diffusion. -Most cultures developed similar ides independently, but some ideas developed in only a few areas and spread from there through cultural diffusion. -Some civilizations, when seeing the advances of others, were stimulated to do the same thing and improve their own civilization. Irrigation -Irrigation was developed by early civilizations to improve farming and was a major reason that farmers could produce their own food so readily and abundantly. -Early Neolithic farmers depended on rain, but soon, farmers started building ditches, or canals, from nearby lakes to provide water to their farms. -Farmers also built dikes and dams to control the flow of rivers and prevent flooding. Fertile Crescent Locations and Languages -The Tigris and Euphrates and Nile rivers were the main places were people in the Fertile Crescent settled. -Ancient Egypt and it’s Religious Beliefs -The Egyptian people and culture developed along the Nile river valley. -The early inhabitants of this area called their land the Kemet or “black land” for the dark soil in the region. -The ancient Greeks would later name this area Egypt. -People probably know about Egypt the most out of the early civilizations. -Egypt receives little rainfall but the Nile (4160 miles long) provided the people with lots of water. -The Nile is navigable until it’s last 650 miles. -The Nile provided the people there also with many animals for food such as geese, ducks, and fish. -Since Egypt was protected by deserts and cataracts (waterfalls) from invasion the cities prospered. -By 4000 BC the small kingdoms had formed into two large kingdoms. Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. -Around 3000 BC a king called Narmer united the two kingdoms and ruled them both from his captial city Memphis near the border between the two. -Narmers rule marked the beginning of the first dynasty. -30 dynasties would rule Egypt from 3000 to 332 BC. -This time has been organized into three great periods, the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. -The Old Kingdom lasted from 2700 to 2200 BC. -The Egyptians regarded their ruler as both a strong leader and a god. This is called a theocracy, where the public regards it’s leader as both a political and religious leader. -Many of the king’s responsibilities went to the bureaucracy that he would set up. -Egyptians built great pyramids as tombs for their great leaders and to honor them after death since they believed the rulers would still help guide the kingdom, even after death. -The Middle Kingdom lasted from about 2200 to 1800 BC. -The Egyptian world entered a period of upheaval and violence and then a new dynasty took over and moved the capital to Thebes. -The Egyptians of this time took over the Nubians and launched military campaigns against the Syrians. -Egypt eventually fell to the Hyksos who easily conquered them with bronze weapons and horse-drawn chariots. -This marked the end of the Middle Kingdom. -The New Kingdom lasted from about 1600 BC to 945 BC. -Around 1600 BC Ahmose, and Egyptian prince, rose to fight of the Hyksos and succeeded. -He gave himself the title of pharaoh, a word meaning “great house of the king”. -He did great things to the rebuilding of Egypt and restoring it’s greatness. -Around 1480 BC Queen Hatshepsut came to power. She first ruled with her husband, and then on behalf of her stepson, Thutmose III. -She crowned herself pharaoh in time and took on all the traditions of pharaoh, including the false beard. -After she died, Thutmose got the throne and conquered an empire for Egypt. -When a new ruler, Amenhotep, took the throne around 1370 BC along with his wife, Nefertiti, he broke Egyptian tradition of worshiping many deities and proclaimed that Egyptians should worship only one god. -This god was Aton, the sun-disk god. To honor this god, Amenhotep changed his royal name to Akhenaton, or “spirit of Aton”. -He also moved the capital of Egypt from Thebes to a central city in Egypt dedicated to Aton. -Many people were unhappy with this new form of religion and after Akhenatons’s death, Egypt returned to the old ways. -During the 1200’s, Egypt started to reclaim it’s glory with the rule of Ramses II. -During this time Egypt was fighting the Hitites for the control of Syria. -This led to a standoff at the battle of Kadesh and a treaty. -After Ramses’ rule of 67 years in Egypt, the civilization came under rule of foreign powers and declined. -Ramses had 96 children, 52 of which were sons. -At it’s height, Egypt had a population of 5 million. -Royalty, nobles, and priests formed the upper class of society. -Artisans, scribes, merchants, and tax collectors formed the middle class. -Majority of Egyptians belonged to the poor class. Lots of them were farmers. -A husband, wife, and children formed the family group. -Children were taught great respect for their parents. -Egyptians practiced the worship of many deities. This is called polytheism. -Ra was the sun god. Theban priests joined their favorite god, Amon, with Ra to make one god called *gasp* Amon-Ra. (That name just reeks with originality). -Osiris was another popular god. It was initially the god of the Nile, but eventually became the god of life, death, and rebirth. -Egyptians devoted much time to life after death. -Egyptians developed an early form of writing based of symbols called hieroglyphs. -The Egyptians also had many advances in the fields of science. They developed an accurate 365 day calendar and also had many advances in medicine. Sumerians/Cities -Around 3500 BC, the Sumerians arrived in Mesopotamia. -By 3000 BC they had formed 12 great city states along the Tigris and Euphrates river. -These included Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. -Populations in this ranged from 20 to 250 thousand people. -Ziggurats were great temples to Sumer’s gods. -Each city state governed independently of each other. -Sumerian city states were theocracy’s. -A Sumerian man could sell his wife if he wanted to. -Sumerian writing is the oldest in the world, dating back to 3100 BC. It is called cuneiform. -Special schools to learn cuneiform called eddubas were formed. -One of the great literary works of this time was called Gilgamesh. -Sumerians were also polytheistic. They believed their gods to be bad and selfish beings. They also thought humans did not have a good afterlife to look forward too, only a grim underworld. -Sumerians were the first to invent the wagon wheel. They also developed a 12 month calendar, a number system based on 60, and the first bronze tools. -Some scholars say “history begins at summer“. Babylon and Important Leader -The dynasty that founded Babylon, would later produce a ruler called Hammurabbi who would later dominate the Mesopotamian land. -Babylon became a major trade center. -Hammurabbi developed a law code composed of 282 sections which stressed “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”. -After Hammurabi‘s death, Babylon declined. Hitites -Around 2000 BC, the Hitites came to Mesopotamia. They developed a lot of city-states on the Anatolia plateau. -By 1650 they had a well organized kingdom. -Hitites developed a two-man chariot with two soldiers and a driver. -Their law emphasized payments rather than punishments for damages. Israelites/Location/Religion -The Jews established their religion and kingdom in Israel. -After Solomon’s death, the 10 northern tribes broke away from the 2 southern tribes. The northern tribes retained Israel as the name of their kingdom and the 2 southern tribes called their kingdom Judah which is where the word Jew is derived from. Canaan -The Phoenicians settled in the land of Canaan between Egypt and Syria. -Their neighbors in Canaan were the Philistines. -The Romans would later call southern Canaan Palestine meaning “land of the Philistines”. -Canaan was where Abraham and his followers settled. Torah -This was an organized book of Jewish holy writings -This makes up the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Lydians -Developed the first coins. Phoenicians and Alphabet -The Phoenicians relied heavily on sea trade. They were able to trade for many other goods with their rare goods such as cedar. -They developed many wealthy city-states along the coast such as Tyre, Byblos, Sidon, and Berytus. -They developed their alphabet from earlier more complex systems in southern Canaan and northwest Syria. -Their alphabet had 22 characters each representing a consonant sound. Writers mentally inserted vowels into writing. -Their alphabet later became the foundation for other alphabets including the Greek one. Ancient Greek Religion -The Greeks believed in many deities. -Much more than other civilizations, the Greeks humanized their deities. -Athena was the goddess of wisdom and art. -Demeter was the goddess of agriculture. -Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty. -Zeus was the chief god whom all Greeks worshiped the most. -Greeks believed that the 12 most important gods lived on top of Mount Olympus. -Pluto, brother of Zeus, ruled the underworld. -Apollo, son of Zeus, was god of light. Was also considered the god of prophecy. Ancient Greek City States and Citizenship -The word for city-state was polis. -Each city had an acropolis, or fortified hill, in the center. -An agora, or public square was at the bottom of the acropolis. -Citizens were those who took part in the government. -Slaves, and those who were foreign-born were excluded from citizenship. Athens -Located on the Attican peninsula. -Named after Athena. -Non-enslaved foreigners were called metics. -Only landowners who’s father and maternal grandfather had been citizens could be in the Assembly initially. -A constitution in 5074 BC stated that all free, Athenian-born men were citizens. -Four consecutive rulers brought the most change to Athenian government. -Draco was the first and made a very cruel system of laws. Even the most minor crime was punishable by death. -Solon was the next. He canceled all land debts and freed debtors from slavery. He also made limits on the amount of land one person could own. He also established the basics for what would become an Athenian democracy. -Peisistratus was the third. He split up lands between commoners and extended citizenship to people that did not own land. He gave the poor loans and gave them jobs. -Cleisthenes established democracy for Athens. -The Assembly served as a Supreme Court and appointed generals to rule the army. -A council of 500 saw to day to day governmental affairs. It was open to any citizen. -Every year in a lottery, Athenian people chose citizens for the Council. -Juries in Athens contained 201 to 1001 member to avoid bribery. -Ostracism was a way for Athenian people to show displeasure with government officials. If a person’s name appeared on 6000 ostraca, he was exiled. -When boys reached their teens they started learning rhetoric or the art of public speaking. Golden Age -The Athenian general Pericles lead Athens through it’s Golden Age. -The Athenian people lavished money on public buildings but kept their own homes simple. -Upper-class Athenians, except women, and citizens from other city-states enjoyed a symposium as a form of recreation which was a drinking session followed by banquet. -Women participated in public life. -Women of the metic class had great freedom. -Aspasia was a famous metic who gave advice to many Athenian women but she was eventually persecuted on charges of impiety or disloyalty to the gods. Solon -Solon was the next. He canceled all land debts and freed debtors from slavery. He also made limits on the amount of land one person could own. He also established the basics for what would become an Athenian democracy. (Yes, it’s copied from the above, but it’s all he did. Persian Wars -In 564 BC Persian armies led by Cyrus II conquered Ionia. -In 499 BC the Ionians rebelled. Darius I soon quelled this rebellion. -Darius tried to invade Greece through the Aegean sea but a storm destroyed his supply ships and he was forced to turn back. -He tried again two years later. He sent an army directly across the sea to Marathon an awaited the Athenians to arrive. -The Athenians, outnumbered 20,000 to 10,000 did nothing. Finally decided to attack Athens directly. When all but the infantry was loaded up onto his ships, the Athenians attacked and totally defeated him. -10 years later, Xerxes invaded Greece again, this time with 200,000 soldiers. -King Leonidas delayed the army with only 7,000 soldiers for 3 days as Greece mustered it’s fleet. -The Greek navy then totally wiped out the Persian fleet at Salamis and the Persians retreated back to Asia minor in 479 BC for good. Peloponnesian War -Athens formed the Delian League to fight against the Persians. All but Sparta joined. -Soon Athens used it’s power to rule over the other states and used it’s money to many great monuments. -Another coalition led by Sparta soon formed that opposed Athens. -At first, Athens could hold out indefinitely against Sparta since they had no fleet, but the Spartans made a deal with the Persians to give them Ionia in exchange for gold to build their own fleet. -In 430 BC a disastrous plague, likely typhus weakened Athens killing off more than third of it’s people, including Perciles. -Sparta destroyed Athens’ fleet with it’s Persian financed navy and the laid siege to Athens itself. Athens surrendered in 404 BC. Spartans -Descendants of Dorian invaders. -Sparta owned many slaves, called helots, who farmed the land. -Perioeci were artisans and merchants from the conquered territories. -Helots and perioeci outnumbered the Spartans 200,000 to 10,000. -Around 650 BC the helots revolted. After 30 years the Spartans managed to quell the rebellion. -Sparta was military society. -Boys were placed in barracks at 7 and became soldiers at 20. They retired from the army at 60. -Women were usually married at age 19. -Women had more freedom than in Greece. -Government was set up by a lawmaker named Lycergus. -The Assmebly made up of male citizens over the age of 30 passed laws. -Each year the Assembly elected overseers called ephors to conduct public affairs. -A Council of Elders consisting of 28 men over 60 proposed laws to the Assembly. -Spartans lagged behind in the arts and sciences in comparison to Athens, but were exceptional Olympic Athletes. Illiad -Written by Homer, a blind poet, around the 700’s BC. -Tells of the Trojan War. -Leads into the Odyssey. Alexander the Great -Alexander was the son of Olympias, Philip II wife. -Became ruler of Macedonia at 20. -Was a commander in the army since he was 16. -Died at 33 because of disease. -Conquered the greatest amount of land up to this point in history stretching from Greece to India to Egypt. Hellenistic Age -Hellenistic philosophy began in Alexandria. -Cynicism was chiefly reinforced by Diogenes. He said people should live simply, in accord with nature. -Epicurus founded Epicureanism. People should ignore feelings and politics and live simple with only a few close friends. -Zeno founded Stoicism. Stoics believed that what happened to people was governed by nature and that people should ignore their emotions to gain happiness. This way they could accept more difficult circumstances and do their duty better. -Menander was a playwright of the Hellenistic age who specialized in comedies about everyday life. -Hellenism also had many advances in the sciences. -Aristarchus of Samos concluded that the sun is larger than the Earth and that the Earth revolves around the sun and that the stars are immense distances away. -Eratorthenes estimated the Earth’s circumference to within 1% of the correct figure. -Doctors learned much about the nervous system. -Euclid wrote The Elements of Geometry, a book about, well, I bet you can figure it out. -Archimedes invented the compound pulley. He also discovered the principal of buoyancy and demonstrated the principal of the lever. Socrates -Born to a poor family. -Believed in the relative truth. -Developed Socratic teaching. He asked pointed questions and then opposed the student’s answers with clear and logical arguments forcing them to defend their arguments. -Some Athenians were threatened by his teachings and Socrates was put to trial in 399 BC. He was put to death and carried out the sentence himself by drinking poisonous hemlock juice. Aristotle -Wrote more than 200 books on various topics. -In his book Physics, he says the worlds most striking feature is change. -He was also the first to observe and then classify facts according to similarities and differences. -Many of his writings focused on political science. -He believed that the ideal government balanced monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. -He also said that power should rest with the middle class. Olympic Games -Were held every four years in Olympia in honor of Zeus. -First were supposed to take place in 776 BC. -First there was only a footrace but then they expanded to include a pentathlon which had the discus throw, running, jumping, wrestling, and the javelin throw. -Winners were given statues, parades and some city states even let their athletes be exempt from taxes. Hippocrates -Called the father of medicine. -Believed that diseases had natural, not supernatural causes. -Urged fellow doctors to keep records. -Strongly encouraged hygiene, a sound diet, and plenty of rest. -Drafted an ethical code of medicine called the Hippocratic Oath that many doctors recite today as they become doctors. Ancient Rome’s Location on the Italian Peninsula -Silt washing down this area created swamps. Many early Romans suffered many diseases from this. -Nearby inhabitants generally traded among themselves. -Mountains blocked entry by other civilizations. Roman Social Classes -Patricians were Latin nobles living in Rome. Once the old Etruscan rulers were thrown out, the Patricians took control and declared Rome a republic. -Most of Rome’s inhabitants were called Plebeians. Plebeians were wealthy, non-aristocratic townspeople as well as landowners, merchants, shop keepers, small farmers, and laborers. -Plebeians and patricians could both do many things but the one thing the plebeians were restricted from doing was holding public office. Punic Wars/Causes/Leaders/Outcomes The First Punic War -In 246 BC, Carthage tried to seize the Strait of Messina. Rome decided that it’s not going to let them do that. When the fleets of both kingdoms engaged in battle, full-scale war erupted. -The Roman’s army conquered many of Carthage’s colonies but Carthage remained superior in the naval arena for a while with it’s huge fleet. -The Roman’s built up a huge fleet and defeated Carthage in a large naval battle of the coast of Africa using a new tactic. -This new tactic was snaring the enemy’s ships and invading their ships taking them over. -The war went on until 241 BC. Carthage finally surrendered and was forced to pay an indemnity, or payment for damages. The Second Punic War -Hannibal became a general in 221 BC and in 219 BC took one of Rome’s cities in Spain. -He then took 40,000 soldiers and 40 elephants across the Alps to Rome to invade from the north. Most of his army died from the harsh conditions and the cold. -Even with such a weakened army, Hannibal managed to defeat every Roman army sent against him. -By 216 BC at the battle of Cannae, Hannibal had almost entirely destroyed the Roman army. -Then the Romans rallied under a general called Scipio and attacked Carthage forcing Hannibal to be called back. -Hannibal was defeated by Scipio’s forces at Zama, near Carthage. -Carthage was forced to give up most of their fleet and pay another indemnity. The Third Punic War -After 50 years of peace, the Romans decided to get rid of Carthage. -Cato was a forceful advocate of destroying Carthage. At the end of all of his speeches he would say, “Carthago delenda est” (Carthage must be destroyed). -In 146 BC the Romans burned and sacked Carthage seeding it’s soil with salt. Twelve Tables -The twelve tables was a law code mainly supported by the plebeians. The creation of it was one of their major victory’s over the patricians. -It was a fair code of laws that the judges were forced to write down so that they could not change them at the last minute to favor someone being tried. -The laws were finally engraved in 451 BC and palced in the forum for all to see. -They were harsh at sometimes but guaranteed each citizen protection. Concrete -A new building material invented during the time of the Romans. -It was mixed with other types of stone to form the material to build the Pantheon. Julius Caesar/Military Campaigns/Rubicon/Assassination -Ruled as a triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. -Took military command of Gaul in 59 BC. -Saw that he needed military victories to advance politically. -Crossed the Rhine River to fight Germanic tribes and twice invaded Britain. -Caesar was hailed as a hero by the citizens. -By 50 BC political instability reigned. Crassus was dead, and Pompey, with the backing of the senate, ordered Caesar to give up his army and return to Rome. -Instead, Caesar assembled 5000 troops and crossed the Rubicon, a river that divided Rome’s military provinces from Italy. -Legend says he saw a vision that encouraged him to cross. He realized there was no turning back now. -He captured Italy and drove Pompey and his allies out. -He finally defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, Greece in 48 BC. -He took over the government in 45 BC and induced many social reforms that made the people love him. -Many thought Caesar was a wise ruler but some thought he was an evil tyrant and wanted to kill him. -Caesar was killed on March 15, 44 BC as he entered the senate by chief conspirators Brutus and Cassius. Octavian/Augustus Caesar -Octavian, Caesar’s son turned the public against the conspirators and drove them out. -He formed a second triumvirate with Marc Antony and Marcus Lepidus. -Octavian rules Italy, Antony ruled Greece and the East, and Lepidus ruled North Africa. -Octavian forced Lepidus to retire and convinced Rome that Antony was bad and so he eventually defeated him at Actium in Greece. -Octavian renamed himself Augustus. -In 27 BC the senate named Augustus consul, tribune, and commander in chief. -Ruled for 40 years. -He was a great patron of the arts and also introduced lots of things to make the Roman people happy. -In 31 BC the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) began. It lasted for 200 years. Pax Romana Period -Family gradually became less important. -Father’s lost lot’s of the power they used to have. -Social classes became less stable. -Each class developed it’s own consistent patter of life. -Many people prospered during this time but many were also still poor. -Life was very at ease during this time. In 160 AD the Romans celebrated 130 holidays. Diocletian -Came to power in 284 AD by slaying the murderer of the preceding emperor. -Divided the empire into two large areas. He ruled the eastern provinces and appointed general Maximian to rule the western provinces. -Tried to stop the decline of the empire by issuing the Edict of Prices. -With that he froze wages and set a max price for goods. This effort failed completely. -He also required that all workers remain with the same job throughout their entire lives. Constantine -Came to power in 312 AD. -Reinforced Diocletian’s reforms. -Declared that all jobs must be hereditary. -Moved the capital to the Greek town of Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople. Early Christianity and Leaders -First was thought to be just a sect within Judaism. -Awaited the arrival of a messiah or delivered chosen by god that would help them regain their freedom. -Jesus grew up in the town of Nazareth and proclaimed many ideas about God and the Christian faith. -Many of his disciples saw him as the messiah. -The Roman government decided that anyone who could arouse such strong public feelings could be dangerous and so Pontius Pilate arrested Jesus and crucified him in 33 AD. -His disciples proclaimed that he had risen from the dead to see them and said that he was the Son of God. -People who accepted Jesus’ teachings became known as Christians from the Greek word Christos, meaning messiah. -A convert named Paul helped to preach Jesus’ teachings and wrote and traveled on behalf of his religion. He helped compile the New Testament. -Peter set up the first church in Rome and was a renowned Christian missionary. New Testament -Compiled by Peter and others. -Composed of Peter’s letters to various churches, Gospels (stories about Jesus), writings of other early religious leaders, and the Bible. Thedosius -In 392 AD made Christianity the official religion. -Ruled after Constantine. Came to power in 337 AD. -To lessen problems he decreed that the eastern and western parts should be separate empires. Reasons for the Fall of Rome -Main reasons for that fall of Rome include political instability, economic decline, barbarian invasions, and unsuccessful reforms. Justinian/Law Code -Became Emperor in 527 AD at the age of 44. -Had a wife named Theodora who had lots of political power. -Did lots of military campaigns to drive out invaders and win wars with rivals. -Did a lot to restore the glory of the old Roman Empire. -Classified the laws of Rome into one big organized document called the Corpus of Civil Law. Iconoclasts -People who opposed the use of icons. -Icons were religious symbols used in worshiping. Defeat of the Byzantines -The Byzantine Empire faced many attacks from the Middle East and the Muslim civilizations there. -The Ottoman Turks eventually took over Constantinople in 1453 AD after laying siege to it for six weeks. -The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Empire. Slavs/Kievan Rus -After the fall of Byzantine the leadership of the Eastern Orthodox church passed to the Slavs. -Much of the land is an immense plain called a steppe. -West Slavs lived in marshlands, plains and mountains of east-central Europe. -Successfully fought the Germans to the west and the Scandinavians to the north for control of the territory. -South Slavs lived in the Balkan Peninsula. -Had lots of close contacts with the Byzantines. -A group of South Slavs, the Bosnians, were heavily influenced by Islam. -Eastern Slavs were the largest Slavic group. Lived north of the Black Sea between the Dnieper and Dniester rivers. -Lived simple ways of life. -Built house out of notched wood and lived in the grasslands. Burned the grasslands to clear the land for planting. -Set up lots of trading towns along the riverbanks. -They were not a warlike race. -The arrival of the Vikings is recorded in the Primary Chronicles -The Slavic People wanted the Vikings to some and rule over them and protect them and in return the Vikings would get their land. Rurik the Rus accepted this invitation. -In 880 AD Rurik’s successor, Prince Oleg, took over the fortress-village of Kiev. -Oleg dominated the water trade route since he controlled Kiev. -The rulers of Kiev called themselves the Grand Princes. -By AD 900 Kievan Rus had been organized into many small principalities. -Each principality had it’s own self-government but had to pay tribute to the Grand Prince of Kiev. -The princes were assisted by councils of wealthy nobles called boyars. -Assemblies represented all free adult male citizens. 1054 AD Schism -Doctrinal, Political, and Geographical circumstances led to a schism of the Church. -It divided the church into Roman Catholic (west) and Eastern Orthodox (east). -It further weakened the Byzantine empire which was already pretty badly weakened. First Country to Adopt Christianity -Under King Tiridates, Armenia became the first country in the world to officially accept Christianity in the early 300’s AD. Moscow and Religious Significance -Located near vital land and water resources. -Moscow grew rapidly in 1325 AD when the leadership if the Eastern Orthodox church was transferred there. -In 1350 AD Moscow had become the most powerful city in Slavic lands. -Moscow finally escaped from Mongol rule under the rule of Ivan III. -Ivan married Sophia, niece of the last Byzantine emperor and proclaimed himself Caesar in 1472 Ad. -He also added the title Sovereign of All Russia to himself in 1493 AD. -The Russian Orthodox Church proclaimed Moscow the Third Rome. -The church taught submission to authority. -It also used early Slavic languages in it’s writings. Early Religious Beliefs in Early Africa -There was one supreme god who ruled the universe. -Beneath the supreme god there were many lesser gods who took on different aspects of nature. -Relied heavily on religious beliefs for social stability. European Motivation for Trade -Iron and copper ore. -Silk and gold. Nubia -Established by the Nubians in 3000 BC. -Conquered smaller neighboring communities along the Nile. -Maintained close contact with Egypt. -By 2000 BC had developed into new civilization called the Kush. -Developed strong trade economy. -Around 1000 BC broke away from Egypt and became politically independent. -Led by Pianki in 724 BC, the Kushites defeated the Egyptians. -Built new capital at Meroe which became major trading center and producer of iron. Ghana -On of the richest trading civs because of it’s closeness to gold and salt mines. -Named after it’s word for king, ghana. -Salt was a very important trade item since it was used to preserve foods. -Reached height between the 8 and 900’s AD. -The trade brought many Islamic ideas to the kingdom. -Were conquered by the Almoravids in 1000 AD. Axum -Emerged as a trading power because of it’s proximity to the sea. -When the Ezana, king of Axum discovered two shipwrecked Christian missionaries of the coast of Ethiopia he became converted to Christianity. -Christianity was made the official religion about 330 AD. -Axum declined after the rise of Islam in Africa since it was the outcast. Bantu -A language that had lots of its elements commonly shared throughout many other languages. Matrilineal -Society or method of tracing back lineage through the mother’s side. -Many Bantu villages traced heredity and social status this way. East Africa/Multicultural -At the height of their prosperity, the cities along the East African coast had become truly multicultural centers. -Many merchants of all cultures and religions filled the cities. -Merchants married local women and began speaking the local language (of course derived from, what else, Bantu!) called Swahili. -East Africa/Trade With China -Kilwa had a virtual monopoly on trading. -Malindi, Mombasa, and Sofala were also very important trading centers. -The island of Zanzibar was also an important trading center. -Trading was conducted with many different countries including India and China. Islam/Leaders/Contributions -The prophet of Islam was Muhammad. -Tradition states that he experienced a vision or revelation during his prayers at a nearby cave. -He came back and started preaching his beliefs. -He made slow progress in winning converts. -Most of Makka’s inhabitants rejected his preachings since they were merchants and would be most hurt by it. The poor however welcomed them. -He departed Makka to Yathrib with about 60 Muslim families. -Yathrib became known as Madinah, or the city of the prophet. -The Quran is the holy scriptures of Islam. -The Makkans invaded Madinah but the Muslim forces defeated the Makkans. -The Kabba was is the holiest shrine in Makka and was once a Jewish shrine. -Muhammad died in 632 AD after a brief illness. -It took 20 years for all of Muhammad’s messages to be collected into the Quran, whose name means recital. -The Five Pillars of Islam is the basics upon which Islamic religion is based. --Faith - The confession of faith and that the only god is the Muslim god. It stresses Muhammad’s role as prophet. --Prayer - Muslims express their devotion by praying 5 times a day. They pray at a mosque and the prayer leader is called an imam. --Alms - Charity --Fasting - Occurs during the month of Ramadan. People must fast from sunrise to sunset. A sunset call for prayer marks the end of the fasting. --Pilgrimage - Every able bodied Muslim must make a hajj or pilgrimage to Makka at least once in their lives. Quran (Koran) -It took 20 years for all of Muhammad’s messages to be collected into the Quran, whose name means recital. -The Muslim book of holy scriptures. Much like the Bible and the Torah. Hajj -Pilgrimage to Makka. Hijrah -Muhammad’s departure to Yathrib from Makka. Caliph -Successor to the leadership of the Muslim religion. Imam Muslim prayer leader. Ibn-Khaldun -The first Muslim historian to examine history scientifically. -A North African diplomat. -He believed that human affairs being shaped by natural causes was the process of history. Alegebra -Invented by Muslim mathematicians to express equations about lines and curves. Calendar -The year of the Hijrah marks the begining of the Muslim calendar which starts in 622 AD. Writing -Calligraphy was the art of elegant handwriting. -Arabesques were calligraphic writings combined with geometric shapes, leafs, plant stems, and other shapes to decorate many things and make them look appealing to the eye and beautiful. -Until the 600 AD Arabic literature was composed mainly of oral poetry passed down from generation to generation. -During the 700’s, nonreligious writings appeared that were both entertaining and that taught lessons. -Kalila and Dimna was a book of animal fables that taught moral lessons. -Cordoba, the Umayyd capital in Spain, had 70 libraries and over half a million books. -Omar Khayyam wrote the Rubaiyat. Sunnis and Shiites -A division between the Muslims formed when conflict broke out between the descendants of Muhammad who believed they were the rightly guided caliphs and the political rulers ruling at the time who thought that they should have the power. -Mu’awiyah was the ruler who wanted power. -Ali and Husayn were the descendants of Muhammad. -The Sunnis are the ones who supported Mu’waiyah and believed a caliph was primarily a political not religous leader. -The Shiites were the smaller group who followed Ali and Husayn. Ramadan -The ninth month on the Muslim calendar. -During this month it is said the Muhammad received his first revelation. Abbasids/New Sciences -Moved the capital to Baghdad. -By the 900’s AD 1.5 million people lived there. -Was a major crossroads for trade. -At it’s center is a grand mosque. -Reached it’s height under caliph Harun al-Rashid. -Became a very multicultural place. -The Abbasid caliph Ma’mun founded the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. -Was a great research center. -Muslim scientists invented the concept of algebra. -Measured distances to stars. -Also made lots of things with practical applications. -Improved upon the astrolabe. -Muslim geographers had determined the basic outline of Europe, Asia and North Africa by the 1100’s AD. -The chemist al-Razi invented a system for classifying chemicals. -Also made a medical handbook describing the origins of medicine. -Ibn Sina wrote the Cannon of Medicine. An immense book that tried to summarize all the medical knowledge of the time. Islam in North Africa -Islam spread quickly in North Africa under the rule of the Umayyd caliphs. Hinduism/Classes -Classes --Brahmans - Priests. Study and teach the Vedas. Perform ceremonies. --Kshatriyas - Warriors, rulers. Study the Vedas. Lead the kingdom. --Vaisyas - Commoners. Tend the herds, the land, make and sell products. --Sudras - Unskilled laborers. Servants. --Pariahs - Salves. Did the “unclean” tasks. -Hinduism has many gods. -It was based on the different beliefs of many people. -Philosophies and writings and teachings of Hinduism are all in the Upanishads. -The Upanishads tell of a universal spirit that a person must unite with called Brahman Nerguna. -Another idea of the Upanishads is reincarnation, or rebirth of the soul. -The cycle of rebirth is determined by a principle called karma. How a person lives his or her life determines the form the person will take in the next life. -Ahimsa is a Hindu practice that stresses non-violence to all living creatures. -The ultimate goal in life is moksha, the release from the cycle of rebirth. Varna -The social classes of Hindu Indian society. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisays, Sudras, and Pariahs. Rig-Veda -The oldest of the four Vedas (books of knowledge). the Rig-Veda is the oldest religious text still in use. -Chronicles Indian history from 1200 BC to 500 BC. Karma -The cycle of rebirth is determined by this principle. How a person lives his or her life determines the form the person will take in the next life. Dharma -The duties outlined that the males of each varna have a responsibility to do. -Includes doing what is proper for one’s age. Moksha -The ultimate goal in life for a Hindu is moksha, the release from the cycle of rebirth. Buddhism -Four Noble Truths --All people suffer and know sorrow. --People suffer because their desires bind them to the cycle of rebirth. --People could end their suffering by eliminating their desires. --People could eliminate their desires by following the Eightfold Path. -Which brings us to.....*gasp* the Eightfold Path! --Know the truth. --Resist evil. --Say nothing to hurt others. --Respect life. --Work for the good of others. --Free their minds of evil. --Control their thoughts. --Practice meditation. -By following this path a person could attain nirvana, or freedom from the cycle of rebirth. -Nirvana is not a place, but a state of extinction (sounds fun). Gupta Empire -500 years after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. -About AD 310 Chandragupta I came to power. -No relation to Chandragupta Maurya. -Guptas governed a much smaller empire than the Mauryans. -Built a very strong and stable state. -Did whatever they thought was needed to maintain power. -The religion of the Gupta Empire was Hindu. -Reached height under Chandragupta II. Ruled from 375 AD to 415 AD. -A Buddhist monk from China, Faxian, exaggerated the benefits of the Gupta Empire. -Daily life did not improve in one aspect. The status of women declined. -The Panchatantra presented moral lessons from animals who acted like humans. -The Shakuntala was a play about romantic love. -Gupta mathematicians developed the basic principles of algebra and the concept of zero. -After Chandragupta II’s death is 415 AD the Empire declined and eventually fell. -By the 600’s AD it had dissolved. Mauryan Empire -In 321 BC a military officer named Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Magadhan king and became the ruler. -He was a skilled administrator. -Developed a good postal network. -Kept control of his empire using any means possible. -India’s civ blossomed during the reing of Maurya’s grandson, Asoka. -Began rule in 274 BC with fierce wars of conquest. -His merciless armies slaughtered everything in their path for him and for control of new areas. -After one very brutal battle, Asoka witnessed it’s horror’s and BAM! became a Buddhist. -He issued laws stressing the concern for other’s. He wrote them in local languages instead of Sanskrit so that more people would understand them. -Asoka permitted his nom-Buddhist subjects to practice their own religions. -The Mauryan empire declined and fell after Asoka’s death in 232 BC. -When the last ruler was murdered in 184 BC India once again split into warring states. Asoka Refer to the last big part of the Mauryan Empire section. Golden Age Refer to the Gupta Empire section. Confucianism -Started by Kongfuzi, or Confucius as he is know in the west. Born in 551 BC. -Social harmony and good government would return to China if people lived by a strict code of ethics. -”Do not do unto others what you would not have others do unto you.” -Similair to a familiar teaching in Judaism and Christianity. -Importance of 5 basic relationships. --Ruler and subject. --Parent and child. --Husband and wife --Old and young. --Friend and friend. -Especially emphasized filial piety or a child’s respect for his or her parents. -After Confucius died in 479 BC, his teachings were collected in the Analects. Daoism -Like Confucianism, it helped stress the importance of an orderly society. -Emphasized living in harmony with nature a lot more. -Origins in the teachings of Laozi. -His ideas were recorded in the Dao De Jing. -Followers of Daoism were called Daoists. They believed that people should renounce worldly ambition and turn to nature the Dao. Civil Service -A system that allows anyone with ability to attain public office. -It favored the wealthy since they were the ones who could afford the education to pass the exams. Shang Dynasty -Ruled China from 1700 BC to 1000 BC. -Kings performed both political and religious duties. -Could communicate with nature and deities on behalf of the people. -To do so, they had the priests scratch a question on a piece of bone. They then applied intense heat until the bone would crack. The priests would interpret the pattern of splinters. -Perfected metal casting skills and produced some of the finest bronze objects ever made. -Built first cities under the Shang. Seven Capital cities have been indetified, Anyang being one. -Lacked strong leaders. Zhou Dybasty -Conquered Shang around 1028 BC. -Proclaimed their ruler to be the Son of Heaven, receiving the Mandate of Heaven. -The land was divided among local lords who had peasants work on the land. -In time, the lords became powerful enough to challenge the Emperor. -In 771 BC the lords and the emperor fought a sortie of civil wars that eventually led to the decline of the empire. -The Zhou built roads and expanded foreign trade. -They also developed a cavalry. -Invented the crossbow. -Invented the plow. -These and other advances led to rapid population growth. Chinese Technology Superiority Ended -Invented paper, iron drill bits, wheelbarrow, first printed books, earliest techs for casting bronze and iron, suspension bridge, compass, and gunpowder. -China remained ahead of Europe in technology until the late 1300’a AD. Yin and Yang -A theory related to Daoist ideas. -Two opposing forces in nature in balance. -Yin - Cool, dark, submissive, female. -Yang - Warm, light, aggressive, male. Pax Sinica -Chinese Peace. Coincided with Roman Peace. -Policy to prevent food shortages and high prices. -Asked public to nominate candidates for public office. Education/Peasants -The education needed to pass the civil service examinations was very expensive. -Most peasants could not afford it. -Peasants raised livestock. -Constants threats from flood and famine. -Turned over produce to landowner. -Had to pay taxes and work one month each year on public construction projects. Great Wall of China -Was built to keep Mongol invaders out. -300,000 peasants worked and lots died over many years to build the Great Wall of China. -Stretched more than 4000 miles. -Stands today as a monument to Qin’s ambition. Charles Martel -Became a mayor of the palace in 714 AD. -Also known as Charles the Hammer. -Defeated the Muslims and stopped their expansion into Europe at the Battle of Tours in France in 732 AD. Charlemagne -Pepin’s son. Became Frankish king in 768 AD. -In Latin, name is written Carolus Magnus which gave the name Carolingian to his dynasty. -Doubled the borders of his kingdom through many conquests. -Kingdom became known as the Frankish Empire. -Capital at Aachen. -Alcuin ran a school at capital. -In 800 AD, Charlemagne defended Pope Leo III against the Byzantine nobles. -Leo crowned Charlemagne the Roman emperor. He wanted to be it, but not to be crowned by the pope since it would show that the pope is more powerful. -Appointed local officials called counts to oversee local affairs around his empire and keep him informed. -Royal messengers called missi dominici did surprise inspections to make sure everything was going smoothly. Feudalism -Highly decentralized form of government. -Stressed alliances of mutual protection between nobles and monarchs. -Based on giving land to nobles in return for loyalty and military aid. -With land, they got peasants to farm it. -Started around 900 AD and spread rapidly during the mid 1000’s AD. Time Span -Feudalism lasted about 300 years. Fief Estates with land and peasants that the nobles were given in return for loyalty in the Feudalism system. Homage The ceremony where a vassal pledged loyalty to his lord and received his fief. William the Conqueror -Duke of Normandy. -A cousin of the late English king and a vassal of the French king. -Defeated Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. -Because of that he became king and was given the title William the Conqueror. -Made all landowners swear direct loyalty to him. -Set up a council of nobles to advise him. -Sheriffs to collect taxes. -Conducted the first census recorded in the Domesday Book, Chivalry -A code that governed the behavior of knights. -Said to be brave in battle, fight fairly, keep promises, defend the church, and treat women of noble birth in a courteous manner. Vikings -To go a-viking means to fight as a warrior. -Traveled in long deckless ships. Ideal for travel in many areas. -Sought riches and adventure. -Also explorers and traders. -Set up lots of good trading networks. -Danes temporarily held England and established Viking state of Normandy in France. -Told stories of their gods’ great deeds. -Stories recorded as poems in books called eddas. -Also made sagas. Heresy -The denial of basic church teachings. -Heretics were punished. Sometimes by excommunication, or expulsion from the church. Magna Carta/Long Term Effects -A group of nobles met at Runnymede in 1215 AD and forced the king, John. to sign the Magna Carta or Great Charter. -Placed limits on royal power. -Assured freemen the right to a fair trial. -Eventually would guarantee the rights of all the English people. Vassals -A noble who served a lord of a higher rank. Each person except the king in the Feudal system was a vassal. Serfs -Most peasants were serfs. -People who are bound to the manor they worked on and could not leave it without permission. -Not slaves. Could not be sold. England/Common Law -Henry II set up a system of common law. -Used traveling judges to enforce it. -Each community had a grand and petit jury. -Grand jury submitted names of thought guilty people. -Petit jury established guilt or innocence of those accused. Inquisition -Set up to seek out and punish people suspected of heresy. “Hunt down and destroy the Jed- err.....heretics.” -Set up in 1232 AD. -Often accused innocent people. -Welcomed back those who repented, severely punished the rest. -Punishment ranged from imprisonment to loss of property to execution. Crusades/Reasons/Participants/Contributions First Crusade -Pope Urban II called for crusade in November, 1095 AD to drive out Muslims from holy land. -Many people with promise of salvation joined the crusades. -Was led by French nobles. -Succeeded and after a two month siege in 1099 AD, Jerusalem surrendered. -Those who stayed established states in the area ruled by them. Second Crusade -Seljuks conquer part of Crusader states. -Eugenius IV calls for second crusade. -Monk Bernard ofl Clairvaux helped convince people to join and support crusade. -King Louis VII and Conrad III led crusade. -Non-cooperation between two leaders led to failure of crusade. Third Crusade -Saladin recaptured Jerusalem for Muslims in 1187 AD. -Emperor Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard I led third crusade. “Crusade of Kings”. -Barbarossa died, Augustus turned back, Richard went on alone. -Defeated Muslims in several battles but could not win decisive victory. -After 3 years of fighting, signed treaty. Saladin allowed Christian pilgrims to come to Jerusalem. Effects -Helped break down Feudalism. -Many social reforms for the benefit of the people. -Europeans learned many things from Muslims. -Helped unite Muslims against common enemy. Joan of Arc -In 1429 AD Joan of Arc pleaded to King Charles VII to give her control of army, -Won big battle at Orleans. -Was captured by England and burned at the stake for witchcraft. Granada -Last Muslim stronghold in Spain. -Was forced to surrender in 1492 AD. -Moors (Spanish Muslims) lived here. Hundred Years’ War. -War between England and France over territory. -Big English victories at Crecy and Agincourt. -Due to weapons : cannon and longbow. War of the Roses -War over struggle for thrown between York and Lancaster dynasties. -Lancaster - Red rose. -York - White rose. -Eventually Lancaster won. Plague -Bubonic Plague hit Europe between 1348 and 1350 AD killing one third of it’s population. -Known as Black Death. Simony -Selling of church positions to anyone who had the money for it. Babylonian Captivity -Time period when the popes remained at Avignon instead of Rome. -Named after peiod of exile of Jews in Babylon. Vietnam/China -Culture’s resemble each other. -Chinese dominated Vietnam for more than 1000 years. -Absorbed elements of Chinese belief systems. -Retained many of own traditions. -Built dinh (spirit house) in each village. -Wore hair long and tatooed a lot of areas. -Vietnamese fought hard to retain and regain independence. -Two sisters Trung Trak and Trung Nhi led revolt against Chinese in 39 AD. -Revolt failed. -During confusion in China at fall of Tang dynasty, Vietnam revolted again. -In 938 AD under rule of Ngo Quyen, Vietnamese defeated Chinese at Battle of Bach Dang River. -As Song came to power, Vietnamese rulers would be ruled by China but remain independent by paying tribute. Korea/Three Kingdoms -Claim descent from Tangun, son of bear and god. -Practiced Shamanism. -Was controlled by Han dynasty for short period of time. -Eventually formed three kingdoms. Silla, Paekche, Koguryo. -In 668 AD, Silla conquered all of Korea. Marco Polo/Yuan Dynasty -Mongol Dynasty. -First great Mongol Emperor was Kublai Kahn. -Ruled from 1260 to 1294 AD. -Tried to maintain Mongol culture. -Welcomed foreigners into his court. -Marco Polo was a famous one. -Stayed for 17 years traveling across territory and doing missions for Kahn. Empress Wu -Ruled during Tang dynasty. -Gaozong was ruler, but Wu was the real power. -Expanded bureaucracy and military might. Ming Dynasty -Zhu Yuanzhang led rebellion that overthrew Yuan dynasty. -Took name of Hong Wu and established capital at Nanjing. -Ming means brilliant. -Brought peace and stability to China. -New law codes and re-organized tax system. -Anyone could be punished humiliatingly. -Restored old examination system. -Third emperor ordered 2000 scholars to compile history of China with literature. -Writers preferred novel to other forms of writing. -Early rulers spent lots of money on a navy that could sail far and wide. -Junks were what Chinese ships were called. -Zhang He was an explorer who spread China’s power in many places. -In the 1400’s funding for expeditions by sea was canceled. Forbidden City -To help defend north, Yong Le moved capital to Beijing. -Ordered city completely rebuilt. Took 16 years. -Emperor’s private area. -Courtyard could hold 90,000 people. -Emperor and family lived. No one was permitted to enter. Japan/Christianity/Foreign Policy -Catholic missionaries like Francis Xavier tried to convert Japan to Christianity. -They had limited success. -By 1614 they had converted 300,000 Japanese. -The Emperor Hideyoshi began to suspect a plot so he outlawed Christianity and crucified some missionaries. -Tokugawa also feared Christianity. He killed lots of Christians. -Nagasaki, a Christian community was subjugated for refusing to recant. -After that whole Christianity fiasco, Japan enforced a policy of isolation from contact. -Any travelers already out of the country were to be executed on return. Animism -The idea that spirits inhabit living and nonliving things. Zen -Eisai brought Zen Buddhism from China. -Live in harmony with nature. -Achieve this through deep religious meditation called enlightenment. -Rejected learning and logical thought. Shinto -”The way of the gods”. -A form of animism. -Each clan descended from ancestor usually god or spirit of some kind. -Each clan honored it’s kami (spirit). Hideyoshi -By 1590 had forced daimyos to pledge loyalty to him. -Acted as a military dictator. -In 1588 ordered a “great sword hunt” in which all peasants had to give away their weapons. -Imposed laws that prevented warriors from becoming anything other than warriors and leaving their daimyos and prevented farmers or merchants from becoming warriors. -Invaded Korea. -Admiral Yi’s turtle ships defeated him. Sankin-kotai -Policy set up by Tokugawa shogunate to ensure daimyo loyalty. -Means attendance by turn. -Every other year, a daimyo had to go to the shoguns palace and stay there for a year, and when he left he had to leave their families behind. Ottoman Empire -Strong navy. -Suleiman I, early ruler. Nicknamed the Lawgiver. -Was both sultan (political leader) and caliph. -Had grand vizier, or, prime minister. -Recruited Janissaries. Christian children taken early from homes and converted to Islam making a great fighting force. -Had special laws for those not practicing Islam. -Millets (communities) could do what they wanted. -Renamed Constantinople Istanbul. -Reached peak of power by 1600. -1683 John Sobieski defeated Ottomans and ended siege at Vienna. -By 1700 had fallen behind in trade and technology. -In 1856 Abdul Mejid issued the Hatt-I Humayun. A decree that created a national citizenship and took power away from religious leaders. It also opened the government to all people. -After Mejid died, do did the reform as it lacked support. Timur Lenk -Turkish-Mongol chief. -Called Tamerlane in English. -A strong Muslim. -Caliming descent from Genghis Kahn. -Ruthless. -Most influential city of his empire was Samarkand. -Defeated the Ottomans in 1402. -Died in 1405. Indonesia/Europeans -Dutch made English leave Indonesia and took over. -Ruler of Mataram asked Dutch to help defeat rebels in 1677. -Dutch received important trading rights for help. Origins/Reasons/Class -It began in Italy, -Affected the merchants the most as they benefited the most from it. -Humanism and it’s ideas were some reasons for the begining of the renaissance. -Began mainly in Florence, Rome, and Venice. Protestants/Leaders/Religions -Began by Martin Luther. -Said that salvation can be reached through faith alone and studying the Bible. -After his hearing at the Council of Worms he then laid the foundation for Protestant beliefs and the religion slowly expanded. -Huldrych Zwingli was a protestant who tried to set up his own theocracy in Zurich. -In 1525 he achieved his goal, but was defeated by Christians in 1531. -In the mid-1500’s John Clavin established a very powerful and reform group in Geneva (the city of god). -He wrote the Institutes of the Christian Religion. -Geneva was goverened by many strict laws. German Princes -At the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, German princes were given the right to chose their own religion. Printing Press -By the 1400’s German engravers had developed a system of moveable type. -In 1456, Johannes Gutenburg printed a complete edition of the bible using this moveable type. -As a result of his invention, books were made a lot quicker and in greater numbers than before. Anabaptists/Beliefs/North America -Believed in only baptizing adults. -They based this on the fact that only people who could make a free choice whether to be catholic or not should be baptized. -Most Anabaptists would not accept the authority of rulers, would not join the army, and would not pay taxes. -Radical Anabaptists burned and sacked the German city of Munster. -Many Anabaptist groups left for North America. -The Baptists, Mennonites. and Amish all trace their lineage to Anabaptists. The Prince -A book by Niccolo Machiavelli modeled after Cesare Borgia describing how a ruler should rule and control his kingdom. Peace of Augsburg -At the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, German princes were given the right to choose their own religion. Henry VIII -Wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. The pope would not allow it since Catherine was closely related to the Holy Roman Emperor who held the pope’s military aid from his over the pope’s head and forced the pope not to let the divorce go through. -Henry VIII broke away from the church making his own Church of England and married Anne. -Had 9 kids, 3 of which lived. Anglicans -A blend of Protestant belief and Catholic practice that was instated during the rule of Elizabeth I. -Most people were happy with this. Puritans -These are the ones who were not happy with Anglicanism. -Wanted to “purify” the church of English rituals. Indulgences -Certificates sold for money that cleared a person of all sins he/she has committed. -One monk went as far as to say to some people that it would clear them of all sins they would commit in the future. Predestination -A belief of John Calvin’s that stated that one’s faith was already predetermined by God and one could nothing about it. One’s fate was chosen long before one was born. Council of Trent -Met in several sessions until 1563. -Met to stop the spread of Protestantism and reform the Catholic church. Roman Catholic Doctrines -The Latin Vulgate is the only true form of the Bible. -Salvation comes through church teachings and faith alone. -Established seminaries in many places. -Made clergy rules more strict. -Published the Index of Forbidden Books. List of books no real Catholic should ever read. Teotihuacan -Main city of the Teotihuacanos. -At it’s height had 120 to 200,000 people. -Laid out as a grid. -600 pyramids, 2000 apartments, 500 workshops. -Valuable source of Obsidian found near here. Mesoamerican The Olmec -150 years before King Tut ruled Egypt. -Flourished between 1500 and 400 BC. -Main cities : San Lorenzo, La Venta. -Enormous stone heads as portraits of rulers. -Each of main cities about pop of 1000 at height. -Main god like a jaguar. -Practiced slash and burn farming. Cut trees, let dry, burn for good soil fertilizer. -Common was for them to trade with other Mesoamerican cultures. Mayans/Religion -Settled Yucatan Peninsula. -Religion was the center of their lives. -Two levels of existence. First is this world, second is “otherworld”. -Mayan kings were both political and religous leaders. -Lots of human sacrifices. -Some festivals included ceremonial game called pok-a-tok. solid rubber balls bounced of body into net. -Measured movement of planetary objects. -Believed that these were movements of gods across the sky. -Used a number system with a base of 20. -Two calendars. 260-day religious and 365-day normal. -Economy based on agriculture and trade. -Every five days or more frequently, farmers brought produce in to sell. -Participated in lots of long distance trade. -One of the first native American people to develop writing system. -By 900 AD, they showed signs of collapse. Bison/Plains Indians -Farming in this region was difficult. -Corn crops needed more water than was available in the area. -Mainly depended on bison for food. -Used every part of bison for food, shelter, clothing and different tools. Aztecs -Warriors that lived from 1200’s to 1325. -Founded city in central Mexico called Tenochtitlan. -According to legend, a priest told them to build their city where they sea an eagle with a snake in it’s beak sitting on a cactus. -The city was in the middle of a lake so they built chinampas or artificial islands to connect them to the city and to farm in the place. -Formed alliances with neighbors. -By 1500 empire stretched from northern Mexico to Guatamala. -Pop of Tenochtitlan in 1500 range from 120 to 200,000. -Organized as a heirarchy. -Four classes, nobility commoners, serfs, and slaves. -Male prisoners of war were sacrificed to the gods. -Chief god was the sun god Huitzilopochtli. -Used 360 day religous calendar. Also 365 day normal calendar. -Decorated temples with pictures of gods. -Revolts in outlying areas weakened Aztec control. -Rebels with Spaniards destroyed Aztecs in 1521. Incas -The Moche eventually became the Inca. -Set up capital in Cuzco. -Decisive period began with rule of Pachacuti. -He and his son greatly extended the boundaries of the Inca empire. -Eventually included all of Peru, Chile, and parts of Ecuador and Bolivia. Stretched 2500 miles. -Strong central government. -To unite people, a common language, Quechua, was established. -Quinoa was one of the major crops of the Incas. -Main god was the creator god, Viracocha. -Some human sacrifices, but not often. -Kept records using quipu, a rope system using knots. -The Inca, obedient and well disciplined, were utterly crushed by the Spanish in 1531. Atahualpa -Inca ruler. Won throne from brother after a conflict. -Captured by Pizarro. -A ransom was paid but he was killed anyway. Fracisco Pizarro -Invaded the Inca Empire. -Captured the ruler, massacred thousands of Incas, got a ransom for their ruler, and killed him anyways. Cabral -Leader of a bloody trade war in which the Portuguese won control of trade in the Indian Ocean from the Muslims. Joint Stock -Companies formed by individual merchants by combining their resources. -Organizations that sold stock, or shares, in the venture. -Allowed poor and rich investors to share profits from this. -If a loss occurred, the investor would only lose as much money as he had put in. European Injustices In the New World -Such things such as the slave trade, the slaughter of native civilizations, and the greed for the resources in the new world all represent the injustices by the Europeans. European Diseases in the New World -Europeans brought with them many diseases that the civilizations of the new world could not fight. Because of this they died off. The African salves also died off because of diseases and the harshness of their trips. Portugal -Main interest lay in Africa and Asia. -More so in trade then in colonization. -When they reached the Indian Ocean, they found the waters already well settled by the Asian people there. -Pedro Alvares Cabral let a Portuguese fleet to destroy the Muslim fleet and get control of sea trade in the Indian Ocean. -Built naval bases along the Indian Ocean. -Expanded to Moluccas, or Spice Islands. -Colonized present day Brazil. -Brought new income producing crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, coffee, and cotton. Prince Henry -Prince Henry the Navigator. Son of King John I of Portugal. -Not a sailor. -Brought together many great mathematicians, mapmakers, and astronomers to study navigation. -Sponsored many voyages down Africa’s coast. Caravels -A new type of ship invented during the 1400’s. -Was a lot bigger and sturdier than most ships. -More seaworthy than others and could travel long distances. Astrolabes -Used to determine the altitude of the sun or other heavenly bodies. -Perfected by Arabs. -In practice, hard to use on heaving deck of a ship. Vasco da Gama -Sailed from Portugal to India. -Rounded the Cape of Good Hope. -Found Hindus and Muslims trading fine goods that made his look shabby. -Failed in trying to persuade the rulers to trade with him and his country, but was regarded as a national hero anyway. Bartolemew Dias -Discovered the Cape of Good Hope. -Left on expedition to find it in 1487. Magellan -Tried to find western route to Asia. -At Argentina, he fought of three mutinies. -At the Strait of Magellan, one ship had to turn back, another was destroyed. -Magellan renamed the South Sea the Pacific Ocean since it was so peaceful. -As his ships reached the Philippines, Magellan was killed. -His crew made it back to Seville and and had performed the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Vespucci -Amerigo Vespucci. -Suggested that Columbus had discovered a “New World” -The name America began appearing on maps in his honor. Henry Hudson -Claimed land for the Dutch along the Atlantic coast. -Main Dutch city was built at the mouth of the river he named. Hernan Cortes -Landed in Mexico with 600 men and 16 horse. -Was guided by a native guide called Malinche. -Montezuma II gave Cortes lots and lots of gold to make him go away thinking that it was a god. -Instead, Hernan kept on coming, enticed by the riches. He eventually slaughtered all the Aztecs. Entrepreneur -Combined money, ideas, raw materials, and labor to make goods and profits. -Used profits to expand business and develop new ventures. Middle Passage -The dreaded trip for slaves between Africa and America. -Most slaves died during this part of the trip as it was spent in the dark in bad environment. -They were chained to the deck and had very little space to move. -1 in 5 died. -10 to 24 million slaves came across this way. Jamestown -Earliest English settlement in North America. Haiti -The island where a revolt was staged by Africans and succeeded giving them their own independent republic. -Was St. Dominique. Mercantilism -A theory that stated that a state’s power depended on its wealth. Effects of the Commercial Revolution -New business methods (joint-stock companies). -Increase in money for the people and the merchants. -Emergence of mercantilism. Triangular Trade/Continents -The entire process of the slave trade. -Ships go from Europe to Africa. -Trade goods for slaves. -Africa to America. -Get goods for salves. -America to Europe. -Sell goods for money. -And do it all over again! New World Minerlas and Products -Sugarcane, tobacco, coffee, cotton, molasses, gold, iron, silver, lumber, fish, rice, wheat. Hispaniola -The first Islands that Columbus discovered. -Present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic. 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